DES1012 Beginning Graphic Design

WEEK #7: Basic Form Interaction

2008-10-16T23:59:00.003-04:00

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HOMEWORK:
Begin your next component mockups.

Visual Rhetoric (summary)

2008-07-12T21:15:00.012-04:00

Luba Lukova, Privacy, poster, 2008.
Rhetoric is the art or the discipline that deals with the use of discourse, either spoken, written or visual, in order to inform, persuade and motivate an audience. Claiming that “Rhetoric is a useful skill”, which “turns a weak man into a strong one”, Aristotle defines rhetoric as the power to observe the persuasiveness of which any particular matter admits (the skill to observe the persuasive aspects in any subject matter and to use them for argument).

Rhetoric deals with communicating an idea as effectively as possible.
The classical art of rhetoric involves five phases described as inventio (discovery of ideas), dispositio (arrangement of ideas), elocutio (stylistic treatment of the ideas), memoria (memorization) and pronunciatio (presenting the subject matter).

We will focus on the third stage –Elocutio, where the stylistic treatment and the shaping of the material are under consideration.
The stylistic treatments that are applied to increase the overall effectiveness of the expression are given the term: Figures of Speech (also referred as Rhetorical Figures).

FIGURES OF SPEECH:
Figures of speech are any artful deviations from the ordinary modes of speaking, writing, or visualization. As a means of departure from the ordinary ways of expressing an idea, they endow communication with strong dynamic tension.

The figures of speech are divided into two main categories: Schemes and Tropes.

Schemes involve deviation from the ordinary or expected pattern of words.

Tropes involve shifts in the general meaning of words, –a word is used in a way other than what is considered its literal or normal form.

Although rhetoric has developed as a method that deals fundamentally with the spoken and written language, rhetorical principles are applicable to visual language as well.
Gui Bonsiepe was first to analyze the relationship between visual/verbal rhetoric (1965). Bonsiepe essentially studied the advertisements and demonstrated that visual rhetoric is possible on the basis of verbal rhetoric.

FIGURES OF CONTRAST:
Irony: The use of a word in such a way as to convey a meaning opposite to the literal meaning. E.g. Robbing the savings of a poor man is a noble act.
Waldemar Swierzy, Circus - poster, 1979

Antithesis: Placing contrasting terms of ideas together to emphasize their differences and give the effect of balance. E.g. A small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.
Milton Glaser, Bach - concert poster.

Andrzej Pagowski, Hamlet, poster, 1987.

FIGURES OF SIMILARITY:
Metaphor: An implied comparison between two things of unlike nature that have yet something in common. E.g. Knowledge is an instrument for cutting.

Andrzej Pagowski, Hamlet, poster, 1985.

Luba Lukova, Health, poster, 2008.

Wieslaw Walkuski, Waiting for Godot, 1996.

Simile: When the comparison is explicit: E.g. Knowledge is like an instrument for cutting.

Personification: Comparison whereby human qualities are assigned to inanimate objects or to abstractions. E.g. The houses in the valley seemed to be a sleep.

John Gall, book cover, 2007.

Tomasz Boguslawski, Ubu King, 2004.

FIGURES OF CONTIGUITY:
Metonymy: The substitution of some attributive or suggestive word for what is actually meant. The thing what is really meant is represented by something closely associated with it.
E.g. Crown for royalty, pen for authors, gold for money, bottle for alcohol, ear for music.
“The White House supports the bill” (White House instead of the President).
Jerzy Czerniawski, Hamlet, 1975.

MichelBatory, Idiot, 1995.

Synecdoche: Part stands for the whole, or, the whole is used to refer to part of it; and thus something else is understood within the thing mentioned.
E.g. Bread for food, head for brain (‘use your head’), steel for sword, mouth for hungry people…
Paula Scher, Him.

Periphrasis: The indirect reference by means of well-known attributes or characteristics. Substitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a proper name.
E.g. He is a Pollyanna. / She has gone to a better world.

Pun: Play upon words, two or more meaning appear in one word or in two words of identical
or similar sound. E.g. There is a certain type of a woman who'd rather press grapes than clothes.

Tomasz Boguslawski, Titus Andronicus, 2007.

LubaLukova, calendar cover, 2006.

FIGURES OF GRADATION:
Amplification: The expansion of a topic through the assemblage of relevant particulars.
E.g. He went to see the world: the east, the west, north and the south.
David Pearson, book cover, 2007.

Hyperbole: The use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect, emphasized by saying more than what is really meant, or more than is literally true.
E.g. I could sleep for a year.

Understatement: It can be considered as the opposite of hyperbole. The situation is made to look less important or serious than it is. E.g. “It's just a flesh wound.” (Black Knight, after having both of his arms cut off, in Monty Python and the Holy Grail)

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List of References:
Ehses, Hanno H. "Representing Macbeth: A Case Study of Visual Rhetoric. Design Discourse. Victor Margolin (Ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 187-197.

Behrens, Roy R. Illustration as an Art. Prentice Hall, 1986.

Color (summary)

2008-07-05T13:52:00.003-04:00

We tend to think of color as the characteristics of objects. Indeed, color is a function of light reflected from the objects. E.g. Blue objects absorb all the rays except the blue ones, and these are reflected to our eyes. Black objects absorb all the lights. White objects reflect all of them. Therefore, color is a 'property of light'.

This was illustrated by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th century when he put white light through a prism. The prism broke up white light into familiar rainbow of hues.

The significance of the fact that 'color is a property of light', is: as light changes, colors also change. E.g. Grass may be almost gray at dawn, yellow-green at noon, blue-black at night. However, our mind insists that grass is green despite the visual evidence. This is called Color Constancy Effect. For many artists, this has been an important subject of study:
Monet, London, The House of Parliament, Stormy Sky, 1904.

Monet, London, The House of Parliament, Sun Breaking Through the Fog, 1904.

Although color comes from light, the guidelines of color mixing and usage are different depending on whether the color source is light or pigments & dyes.

Color from light combines and forms new visual sensations based on what is called ADDITIVE SYSTEM.

When color comes from the light reflected by pigments, it operates based on the SUBTRACTIVE SYSTEM.
(Pigments are substances that reflect approximately the same color as is seen in the band of the spectrum of refracted light.)

ADDITIVE SYSTEM (refracted light):

If you look at a screen with a magnifying glass you will see that all the colors are actually combinations of tiny red, green, blue dots. There is no color such as yellow on a screen.

Lights projected from different sources mix according to the additive method.
Three primary colors are: RED - GREEN - BLUE (RGB)
When three primaries are combined 'white light' will be produced.
Secondary colors are: CYAN - YELLOW - MAGENTA
When complementary hues in light are mixed, it will produce an Achromatic Gray or White. E.g. When light from a cyan spotlight and from a separate red spotlight overlap, the visual sensation is basically white.

SUBTRACTIVE SYSTEM (reflected light):

Artists reproduce the colors of the visible spectrum using pigments.E.g. Yellow pigment absorbs all the colors except yellow, reflecting yellow back to the observer.
No color occurs until this reflected wavelenght of light is received by the eye and interpreted by the brain.

Three primary colors are: MAGENTA - CYAN - YELLOW
Secondary colors are the mixture of primaries: ORANGE - GREEN - PURPLE
If the secondaries are mixed, a third set of hues is created:
Tertiaries are: ORANGE-YELLOW; RED-ORANGE; RED-PURPLE; PURPLE-BLUE; BLUE-GREEN and YELLOW-GREEN.

PROPERTIES OF COLOR:

HUE:
Hue simply refers to the name of the color. Red, orange, green, yellow are hues. Although the terms 'hue' and 'color' are often used as synonyms there is a distinction between them: Hue describes the visual sensation of the different parts of the color spectrum. One hue can be varied to produce many colors. So, there are few hues but almost unlimited number of colors. Pink, rose, scarlet, maroon, crimson are all different colors but hue in each case is red.

The most common organization for the relationship of basic colors is the color wheel. Dates back to Sir Isaac Newton (17th c.), then updated by Johannes Itten. 12 hues are divided into 3 categories. Color wheels are 2D models of color relationships that deal with only HUES – the names of the colors.

Hues opposite of each other on a color wheel are complementary colors.
Hues next to each other are called analogous.

VALUE:
The second property of color is value. It is the degree of lightness or darkness of a hue.

In pigment, value can be altered by adding white or black paint to the color (also dilluting can be used: adding trasparent paint, like water in case of acrylic or gouche)

Adding white lightens and produces a TINT, or HIGH-VALUE color.
Adding black darkens and produces SHADE, or LOW-VALUE color.

Please note that, not all the colors on the color wheel are shown at the same value. Each is shown at normal value, with the pure color unmixed and undiluted. The normal values of yellow and blue are radically different. Yellow is light, high-value color. Blue is comparatively low-value, corresponding to dark gray.

Value, like color itself is variable and entirely dependent in surrounding hues for its visual sensation. E.g. Against black background, the color appears lighter than when it is on lighter background.

SATURATION (a.k.a. INTENSITY - CHROMA):
It is a measure for the purity and brightness, or, grayness and dullness of a color.

Mixing black and white with a color changes its value, but at the same time affects the saturation.

If you want to change the saturation without changing the value, then what is necessary is to mix the color with its complementary:

In pigments there are two major ways of graying a pure color of maximum saturation without changing its 'value':
Mix it with a gray of the same value, or
mix it with its complementary of the same value.

Complementary colors are direct opposites in position and in character. Mixed complementaries will neutralize each other until they form a gray that resembles neither.

Contrarily, when complementary colors are placed next to each other (mixed visually, not as pigments), they intensify each other's brightness. When orange and blue are side by side, they appear brighter than in any other content. This effect is called Simultaneous Contrast, meaning that each complement simultaneously intensifies the visual brilliance of the other, so that colors appear to vibrate.
Henri Matisse, Piano Lesson, 1916.

Therefore, another way of changing saturation is to put one color side by side with its complementary. Both colors will look more intensified.

This is also based on a general principle of color: Colors are affected by colors around them.

COOL and WARM COLORS
Although we don't get burned or freeze by touching a colored surface, because of the learned associations, we attribute sensations such as warmth and being cold to colors.

By definition, colors between yellow and red-violet on the color wheel are referred as warm colors, whereas colors between yellow-green and violet are cool colors.
Archibald J. Motley, Gettin’ Religion, 1948.

Pierre Bonnard, Breakfast Room, 1930.

The final effect, -as in all colors- depends on the context in which we see the color. Depending on the surrounding color, a cool color like green can appear warm (e.g. when it is surrounded with a colder/duller color)

COLOR SCHEMES (Color Harmonies)

1) Monochromatic:
Monochromatic scheme involves the use of only one hue. The hue can vary in value (black and white may be added).
Picasso, Crouching Woman, 1902.

2) Analogous:
The adjacent colors on the color wheel are called analogous colors. The analogous scheme involves several hues that sit next to each other on the color wheel. The hues may vary in value.
Navaho Rug, 1885-1895.

3) Complementary:
This scheme joins colors that are opposite to each other on the color wheel, which results with a strong sense of contrast.
Van Gogh, Noon Rest, 1889-90.

4) Split Complementary:
It is related with the complementary scheme, but the colors which are adjacent to one of the complementary pairs are used. E.g. A red may be used with blue and green, instead of blue-green which is red's exact complementary.
Matisse, Two Girls in a Yellow and Red Interior, 1947.

5) Triadic
It involves three colors which are equally spaced on the color wheel. Because the colors come from different parts of the color wheel, the result is usually lively.
P.Fix-Masseau, Periodical Cover, 1948.

COLOR DISCORD
Color discord is the opposite of color harmony. Discordant colors have neither closeness nor contrast. Their relationship can't be described based on their being analogous or complementary. Therefore, their combination can be visually very disturbing. Certain color pairings in this group can almost be difficult to look at (e.g. red-cyan) as they have vibrating edges. Our eyes experiences conflict in trying to perceive them simultaneously.

Although color discord may sound negative at first, it can be used to create excitement and attract attention in a design.
Victor Moscoso, Young Bloods, poster, 1967.

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List of References:

Lauer, David A. and Stephen Pentak. Design Basics. 5th Ed. USA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning, 2002.

Zelanski, Paul and Mary Pat Fisher. Design: Principles & Problems. NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1984.

Typography-History & Anatomy (summary)

2008-07-05T12:09:00.013-04:00

Typography is the knowledge of creating and organizing letters, words, sentences & paragraphs to communicate an idea.

Another well-known definition states:
Typography is the study of the printed page.

The invention of movable type by Johannes Gutenberg (c.1455) marks the beginning of the history of the printed page. Although letterforms were standardized for the first time with Gutenberg, his aim was to print a book that looked like the hand-written books of the time. He used Textura (a.k.a Textur) –a type of Blackletter, widely used in the Medieval period.

Printing quickly spread across Europe, Rome and then to Venice, where Nicholas Jenson –a printer and type-caster, cut a new typeface that will have significant influence on other typefaces which were to be created from then on.
Jenson's reference was the Humanist Script (scrittura humanistica) which was itself derived from the Carolingian Minuscule of the 8th c.

Emperor Charlemagne, in the 8th c, issued an edict to standardize writing. The Alcuin of York, supervised a large group of monks to rewrite all the ecclesiastical and secular texts. This script, called the 'Carolingian Minuscule' set the standard for calligraphy for a century.

With the dissolution of Charlemagne's empire came regional variations upon Alcuin's script. A condensed, strongly vertical letterform known as blackletter gained popularity and it remained the standard script for almost 500 years.

With the Renaissance, an enthusiastic revival of classical culture began. In the south, scholars were rediscovering, analyzing, and popularizing Roman and Greek texts. Their sources were written in Alcuin's Carolingian minuscule, which they mistakenly believed to be that of the ancient authors. Scribes adapted to the Caroline as they copied the manuscripts, calling it 'scrittura humanistica' –humanist script.

Jenson's most important achievement was to unite the uppercase (majuscule) and the lowercase (minuscule) letters in one alphabet. Rather than separate styles, they were now 'a set sharing the same design characteristics'.

Another Venetian printer –Aldus Manutius, and his type-caster Francisco Griffo, took Jenson's achievement one step further. Bembo, a typeface cut by Griffo, not only united the lowercase and uppercase better, but also standardized the form of the letters creating an extremely consistent color and texture on the page. Bembo is an epitome of the Old Style type category.
Aldus Manutius is also the inventor of the italic style. It was possible to fit more copy on one page with letters cut in this style, and Manutius used it in 'pocket books'.

As a category, Old Style typefaces exhibit a move away from calligraphy towards rationalized system of letterforms. Although they still bare a visual link to hand-writing, they are based on the design of punches for typefounding rather than pen on paper. Other important design characteristics are: Humanist axis, oblique stress (reminiscent of hand-writing & the broad-nib pen), moderate contrast, bracketed serifs, small x-height, and large aperture.

Compared to the Old Style, the Transitional typefaces follow a more mathematical system. They redefine the alphabet as a rational system of parts. Design characteristics are: Usually vertical stress (or barely inclined); generous counters and x-height; greater contrast than Old Syle; and, less rounded serifs.

printed by John Baskerville, 1757.

Modern typefaces are another move towards the standardization and idealization of letterforms. They show high precision. The stress angle is strictly vertical. The serifs are attached horizontally with no brackets, and are not thicker than hairlines. As a common characteristic, Moderns have sharp visual contrast.

printed by Giambattista Bodoni, 1818.

Egyptians or Slab Serifs have developed parallel for the need for advertising, posters & flyers in the early 1900s. They have strong, horizontal and geometric serifs. There is little or no contrast in the strokes, all strokes are in uniform width.
Clarendon is a bracketed version of the Egyptian style. As bold letters became increasingly popular, a need for ‘text size’ faces suitable for book typography appeared and the result was Clarendon.

The most obvious characteristic of San Serifs is the absence of serifs. Generally strokes are uniform, with little or no contrast between them. The stress angle is always vertical. Variations tend towards either humanist forms (Gill Sans) or rigidly geometric (Futura).

All typefaces that cannot be assigned to any other group – historic, decorative or experimental typefaces, are usually classified as Display. They are not suitable for continuous reading, but they have great expressive power, and the ability to take viewers’ attention.

Script typefaces are based on handwritten (cursive) letterforms and are not to be confused with italics. The individual letters are designed to ‘touch’ in order to create a flowing, cursive effect.

a review of identities from 2007

2008-06-29T14:11:00.002-04:00

Logo Designs: Year In Review

famous identities & their history

2008-06-29T14:08:00.001-04:00

http://www.logoorange.com/logodesign-A.php

The (Classic) History of Graphic Design

2008-06-29T13:42:00.004-04:00

Anatomy of Visual Message (summary)

2008-06-29T01:46:00.015-04:00

We express and receive visual messages on three levels:
Representational,
Abstract, and
Symbolic

The representational visual information is the most effective level to utilize in the strong, direct reporting of the visual details of the environment. The representationality, the realistic report of what is seen, is natural to the camera. Beyond a realistic 3D model, the closest thing to actually seeing a bird in direct experience would be a carefully exposed and focused photograph in full and natural color.
A bird then can be fixed in time and space through a photograph. A highly realistic painting or drawing can come close the accomplishing the same thing.
The photograph can be judged as more closely life like, but the artist's work can be clearer in detail because he can control and manipulate them. This can be considered as the beginning of abstraction –the removal of extraneous detail, the emphasis of distinguishing features.
The process of abstraction is one of distillation, the reduction of multiple factors to only the essential and most typical features of what is being represented.

Leonardo Da Vinci, Bird in Flight, sketch

If the movement of the bird is to be emphasized, static, complete details, like the head or the eyes can be ignored. The final form follows the communication needs.
Otto Aicher, Lufthansa, 1962.

In the process of abstraction, with the simplification and reduction of visual forms, the basic compositional elements get exposed. The visual relationship between the basic elements and the visual forces that they create, powerfully convey the meaning. This can be observed in Picasso's paintings. In time he abandoned what is familiar in favor of space, form, tone, color and texture.
Pablo Picasso, self-portrait, 1896.

Pablo Picasso, self-portrait, 1906.

Pablo Picasso, self-portrait, 1907

Pablo Picasso, portrait, 1969.

Pablo Picasso, Seated Woman with Wrist Watch, 1936.

Abstraction toward symbolism requires ultimate simplicity, the reduction of visual detail to the irreducible minimum. A symbol is an arbitrary sign to which a meaning is attached. Symbols have meaning only because it is pinned on them. They are information-packed visual units usually universal in meaning and in order to be effective, they must not only be seen and recognized, but also remembered and reproduced.
The advantage of a symbol is that it communicates very fast. On the other hand, if the viewer is not familiar with the symbol beforehand, interpreting its meaning is almost impossible. The more abstract a symbol, the more education is necessary for the symbol to penetrate in people's mind.
From top left to bottom right: Anarchist symbol; Infinity; Hands of God; Flower of Life.

All these levels of information retrieval are interconnected and overlapping, but can be sufficiently distinguished from each other that they can be analyzed both as a tactic for message making and as to their value in the process of seeing.

In graphic design, all these levels of visual representation –representational, abstract and symbolic, are used in the creation of visual marks. They can be more precisely classified as pictograms, ideograms, and logograms (a.k.a pictograph, ideograph, logograph).
A pictogram is a picture which resembles the thing it signifies. There is a one-to-one relationship between a pictogram and what it represents.

The prehistoric drawings can be considered as early pictograms. The descriptive and representational quality of these visual marks help to convey valuable knowledge about the practices and activities of thousand years old civilizations to our day.

The Lascaux Cave, 17000 BC.

Haljesta-Scandinavia, Nordic Bronz Age.

In time, in addition to pictographs, visual marks that represented abstract concepts or ideas started to being used.

The Ancient Egypt hieroglyphs consisted pictographs (e.g. man, woman), ideographs (e.g. circle/light/time), and phonetic symbols. But writing just with phonetic symbols (i.e. alphabet) was to be invented by Phoenicians around 1000 BC.

The advantages of pictographic communication was studied with a systematic approach for first time by Otto Neurath in 1920s. Parallel with his motto 'words divide, pictures unite', Neurath introduced ISOTYPE (International System of Typographic Picture Education) in 1936. Isotype was designed to be an alternative to written script and it consisted of pictographic characters used "to create narrative visual material."

ISOTYPE that was originally intended to be used for the education of young children, influenced modern public signage, statistical graphics, and information graphics. The 'stick man' which is an inseparable part of our everyday life owes to Neurath's Isotype.

ISO7001 (International Organization for Standardization), Public Information Symbols.

Lance Wyman, Mexico ‘68 - Olympic Games, logotype and sign system.

An ideogram is a picture that represents a concept or an idea. It consists of an identifiable image, but that image, beyond its descriptive value, signifies an idea (usually agreed upon through social conventions).

Bruce Zahor, Women’s Writing Guild.
Nigel Holmes, Program Against Alcohol Abuse.

A logogram is basically a letter that is at the same time a word. In English language, the ampersand '&' is a single character that stands for the word 'and'. The below Kanji character represents the word 'Forest'.

Ryuichi Yamashiro, Hayashi (forest), poster, 1955.

In graphic design practice, when a visual mark represents a company, product or service, it is usually referred as symbol. The typographic word treatment that accompanies the symbol is called a logotype.

The visual identity can also be a combination of symbol and logotype, in which case it can be referred as a combination mark.

Herb Lubalin, Families, 1980.

A corporate symbol must be an effective visual cue representing the core attributes of the organization. They are expected to be unique, distinctive and capable of communicating with the desired audience.

The corporate marks are protected by laws and legislations (see: trademark). Also, their consistency and standard are protected by a set of 'corporate identity guidelines'. These guidelines are prepared by designers, and the aim is to govern how the identity is applied and confirm approved colors, typefaces, page layouts and other such methods of maintaining visual continuity. E.g. Daimler Identity Manual, Mosaic Identity Manual.

For the most part, a corporate symbol & logo is used without the slightest alteration. But, 'kinetic' identities are also possible. Such identities involve 'constants and variations' for which the designer sets the parameters.

Agnew Mayer Smith, Pittsburgh Children’s Museum.

Qwer Group, Expo 2000 Hannover.

Carbone Smolan Associates, Chicago Orchestra Hall.

Stefan Sagmeister, Casa da Música, 2007.

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List of References:
Dondis, Donis A. A Primer of Visual Literacy. MIT Press, 1973.
Meggs, Philip B. Type & Image: The Language of Graphic Design. NY: John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1989.
Thomas, Gregory. How to Design Logos, Symbols and Icons. North Light Books, 2000.

revised schedule

2008-06-18T13:16:00.000-04:00

06.18.08 W:
Object Studies - Work in Progress. Individual critiques.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
06.23.08 M:
Final posters for Object Studies - Class Critique (class begins in A207).
What is a Pictogram? Lateral Thinking & Idea Generation. Assignment Brief. Begin research for Assignment 2.

06.25.08 W:
Pictogram - Work in Progress (20+ rough sketches for today). Individual critiques.
Brief History of Classic Graphic Design (in A207, at the end of the class).

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
06.30.08 M:
Refined Pictograms - Work in Progress. Individual critiques.
The History and Anatomy of Letterforms (in A207, at the end of the class).

07.02.09 W:
Logotype - Work in Progress (10+ sketches for today).
Basic Color Theory (in A207, at the end of the class).

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
07.07.08 M:
Final Pictogram & Logotype. Post-It Critique (class begins in A207).
Creativity and Visual Rhetoric.
Begin sketches for Item#1.

07.09.08 W:
Rough sketches for Item#1 on actual format - Work in Progress. Individual critiques.
Based on individual progress begin sketching for Item#2.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
07.14.08 M:
History of Modern Graphic Design, The Designer's Responsibility (class begins in A207).
Item#1 - Work in Progress.

07.16.08 W:
Final presentations and class discussion (class will meet at A207).

Design Elements & Principles (summary)

2008-06-15T03:47:00.014-04:00

Design means 'to plan'. Randomness or accidents do not have validity within design discourse. On the other hand, "accidents do happen!". As you are working with your elements, an unexpected combination could be created, and you may like it although it is not part of your plan. In such a case, it will be up to you: you may disregard it, or, you may choose to keep it in which case it will no more be an accident as you have intentionally decided to use it.
Aristotle calls such occurrences as 'happy accidents'. They may happen, but in the end, when the design is complete, it is agreed that the design is the result of designer's conscious decisions. Like the way a music conductor conducts an orchestra, a designer is expected to be in control of every element, their relationship and the overall meaning created with the interaction of elements.

This requires a different set of mind. Usually, the majority of people are 'object minded'. However, as well as the object itself, its relationship to its surrounding elements influences the way an object is interpreted.

Visual elements are never isolated, or stand alone by themselves. Design thinking requires being 'relation-minded'. The relationship between visual elements strongly effect the way we perceive them. In the examples below, depending on the relationship between the black sqare and the space different meanings are suggested like 'center', 'gravity', 'movement', 'lightness' etc.

Space, like the dot, line, shapes, texture, value or color, is another design element.

Every visual element, depending on their size, value, placement and direction, creates a spatial force.

The dot is the simplest, irreducibly minimum unit of visual communication. It serves as a reference point or a marker of space. Any point has strong visual power to attract the eye wherever it exists.

Line is defined by Paul Klee as "a dot out for a walk". When the dots are so close to one another that they cannot be individually recognized, the sensation of direction is increased. Line, because of its nature, has enourmous energy. It is never static. Even within the fluid and loose quality of a sketch, it is not vague. It is decisive; it has a direction and purpose, it is going somewhere, it is doing something definitive. Line also describes shape.
Lines can be drawn ( with pen, pencil, strips of paper etc.). Lines can be formed along edges where two different value areas meet or intersect. Lines are also formed where two surfaces meet or intersect in space. In addition to these there are also 'implied lines' –lines that do not physically exist, but nevertheless suggested with the organization of other elements.

Kandinsky's composition shows a skillful use and arrangement of the spatial forces. Lines direct the eye, circles stop. One element leads the eye to another. When creating visual compositions, you can organize the spatial forces in order to create a 'reading path'. From the most important to the least significant information you can decide what your audience will see first, second, third...

Wassily Kandinsky, Composition VIII, 1923.

Jan Tschichold, poster, 1937.

Joseph Muller-Brockmann, Helmhous Zurich, poster, 1953.

When all the elements in a design are in dialog, this means that there's visual unity. Unity is the result of an underlying system that combines and bounds the design elements together. The elements look as belonging together, as though some visual connection beyond mere chance has caused them to come together.

An important aspect of visual unity is that the whole must be predominant over the parts. You must see the whole pattern before you notice the individual elements. Each item may have a meaning and effect on the total effect of the work, but the viewer must see first the pattern as a whole rather than merely a collection of bits and pieces.

Constantin Brancusi, The Newborn, 1915

Gestalt Principles of Visual Perception
Gestalt is a term which is usually understood as 'unified whole' or 'a complete pattern or configuration'. It is a German word for "form", defined as an organized whole in experience.

The Gestalt psychologists, developed the theory on human perception, explaining that the working principle of the mind is holistic. We recognize 'whole form' instead of collecting one by one the pieces that have created it. This is summarized as: "The whole is more than the sum of its parts."

They defined a set of fundamental principles of perception. These principles help us not only to understand how a visual organization is perceived, but also equip us with techniques to achieve visual 'unity' (e.g. proximity, repetition & continuation)

Here are some of the Gestalt Principles:

Proximity: The elements which are close together are perceived as a group. (In fig.A, instead of 2 separate shapes, we perceive a group. When other elements are placed more closely to the existing shapes, we reconstruct our perception and perceive the closest elements as new groups {fig.B})

Similarity: Elements that have similar properties are perceived as a group. (In the example, we 'perceive' a cross shape, because we group the squares.)

Continuity: Every visual unit tends to be continued in the same direction and with the same movement. We have a preference for continuous figures. (In the example, rather than seeing 4 separate line segments, we tend to see 2 intersecting lines)

Closure: Even though the information is incomplete, we can close the gaps and perceive the whole. (In the example, although the shapes are not fully drawn, we can perceive them. There is enough indication, and we can complete the rest.)

Why Not Associates, logotype, 2005.

Edgar Degas, Hot Tube, 1885

Visual Balance: In assessing pictorial balance, we always assume a center vertical axis and usually expect to see some kind of equal weight (visual weight) distribution on either side.
This axis functions as the fulcrum on a scale or seesaw, and the two sides should achieve a sense of equilibrium. When this equilibrium is not present, certain uneasiness or dissatisfaction results. We feel a need to rearrange the elements, in the same way that we automatically straighten a tilted picture on the wall.

Parthenon, Greece, 5th c. BC.

Symmetrical Balance is the simplest type of balance, both to create and to recognize. In symmetrical balance, similar shapes are repeated in the same position on either side of the vertical axis. One side becomes the mirror image of the other side.
Conscious symmetrical repetition, while clearly creating perfect balance and unity, can be undeniably static, therefore the term formal balance is also used for this type of visual organization.

The quiet, formal quality of symmetry creates a feeling of permanence, strength and stability. Such qualities can be important in public buildings to suggest the ideas of dignity, power or endurance.

Domenico Veneziano, The St. Lucy Altarpiece, 1445

In symmetrical compositions there is an immediate creation and emphasis of a focal point. As both sides are visually equal, the attention is directed to the element that is placed on the central axis.

Nan Goldin, Siobhan with a cigarette, 1994

Asymmetrical Balance is achieved with dissimilar objects that have equal visual weight or spatial force (equal eye attraction). Symmetry can appear artificial, as our visual experience in life are rarely symmetrically arranged. Asymmetry appears casual and less planned, although obviously this characteristic is misleading. It is actually more intricate and complicated to use asymmetrical than symmetrical balance. Instead of merely repeating the mirror image of elements on other side of the central axis, attempting to balance dissimilar items involves more complex considerations and more subtle factors. Here are some techniques that can be used to achieve asymmetrical balance:

Frederic H. Evans, York Minister, Into the South Transept, c.1900

Hs. Blätter, poster, 1976

Charles Rennie Mackintosh, chair, 1904.

Katsushika Hokusai, Bay and Mt. Fuji, 1839

A well-known principle in physics is that two items of unequal weight can be brought to equilibrium by moving the heavier inward toward the fulcrum (or moving the light one away). In design, this means that a large item placed closer to center can be balanced by a smaller item placed out toward the edge.

Suzuki Harunobu, Girl with Lantern on Balcony at Night, 1768

Unity with Variety: Repetition and similarity are tools to achieve unity, but, precise repetition or similarity run the risk of boring the viewer. Without some elements of variety, an image is lifeless and dull. Without some aspects of unity a design becomes chaotic and unreadable. Neither utter confusion or utter regularity are satisfying. There must be constants and variants acting together, in balance. In design, the ideal is to achieve dynamic unity.

When you are seeking for dynamism, you must be careful to maintain unity and balance at the same time. Varying elements can create a lot of visual movement and they are difficult to control. Especially when you are new to the idea of 'dynamic unity', using a grid system could be very helpful. A simple grid, created by vertical & horizontal subdivisions of the design area, becomes the understructure of your design. It urges the elements to act according to the same system, therefore helps to achieve visual order and unity.

A.M. Cassandre, L'Intransigeant, poster, 1925.

Joseph Müller-Brockmann, Musica Viva, poster, 1958.

Emphasis and Visual Contrast: Emphasis is a way of 'unifying' the composition. The focal point attracts the eye. If a design has no focal point that draws the attention inward, it may seem to fall apart, making it difficult for the viewer to organize what is going on.
Henri Rousseau, The Dream, 1910.

Contrast is one of the most important techniques to control a visual message. It is the sharpener of all meaning. As a powerful tool of expression, it intensifies the meaning. Any kind of visual contrast helps to create emphasis. Contrast also adds dynamism to the design.

In simple compositions (such as a portrait) the focal point is obvious. The more complicated the pattern, the more necessary or helpful a focal point may become in organizing the design.
As a rule, a focal point results when one element differs from the others. Whatever interrupts an overall feeling or pattern automatically attracts the eye by this difference.
1) When most elements are dark, the light form breaks the pattern & becomes a focal point.
2) When most elements are vertical, a diagonal or horizontal element will be emphasized.
3) When most elements are linear/geometric, a curvilinear or organic form will be the focal point.
4) When most elements are pointed to one direction, the one that shows another direction will be the focal point.
5) When most elements are grouped in close proximity, the one that is isolated with space will be the focal point...
The list can go on and on. This idea is called 'emphasis by contrast'.
Rembrant, Anatomie, 1632.

Paul Gaugin, The Spirit of Death Watching, 1892

James Ensor, Portrait of Artist Surrounded by Masks, 1889.

Paul Klee, Park of Idols, 1939

Paula Sher, poster.

Paul Rand, Direction Magazine, 1939

Thomas Eakins, The Agnew Clinic, 1889

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List of References:
Lauer, David A. and Stephen Pentak. Design Basics. 5th Ed. USA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning, 2002.

Zelanski, Paul and Mary Pat Fisher. Design: Principles & Problems. NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1984.

Kepes, Gyorgy. Language of Vision. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1995.

Elam, Kimberly. Geometry of Design. Studies in Proportion and Composition. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2001.